1. Going back to the “big” eukaryote tree, which of all the non-opisthokont eukaryotes are most closely related to animals? Of all the members of the Opisthokonta, which non-animals are most closely related to animals, and what do they look like? (And why are are they not considered animals?)

2. How is structural architecture of a sponge make it significantly different from a colonial choanoflagellate (i.e., what makes a sponge "clearly animal" as opposed to "colonial protist")? And yet, why are sponges considered “basal animals”?

3. Describe how a sponge feeds – indicate the anatomical structures/cells that are involved in the process.

4. What distinguishes intracellular digestion (e.g., with sponges) from extracellular digestion (e.g., with the rest of the Metazoa)? Is a fungus' digestion intracellular or extracellular? Briefly explain.

5. What’s the result of the cleavage process in early embryonic development? Does the overall size of the embryo increase during this process? And…. How does this pattern differ between protostomes & deuterostomes?

6. Describe AND diagram the earliest steps in the development of a typical animal (fertilization through gastrulation). Be sure to indicate the following terms in your diagram/discussion: blastocoel, blastula, gastrula, archenteron, blastopore

7. All Eumetazoans (but not sponges) reach a stage in which all cells belong to either two or three germ layers that form the ground level of differentiation and further development. What are the germ layers, and what are examples of differentiated adult tissues that derive from each germ layer?

8. Explain the ecological connection between being bilaterally symmetrical and being triploblastic. Why is it logical for animals that are bilateral to “need” the third germ layer relative to animals that are radially symmetrical (and diplobastic)?

9. What are the literal meanings of “protostome” and “deuterostome”? How do these terms traditionally apply to a difference in embryonic development between these two major branches of the Bilateria?

10. Besides the origin of the mouth/anus, what are some other key differences in the development of animals in these two major groupings of animals? How is the likelihood of identical twinning related to this question?

11. While all cnidarians have radial symmetry, how are the polyp and medusa body plans within this phyla different? Give some examples of cnidarians that fit each form.

12. Describe the general mechanism by which cnidarians obtain food, accomplish digestion and subsequent release of wastes. (And what does this have to do with their incomplete digestive tract?)

13. What is a coelom? What is the basic argument saying that the existence of a coelomic space allows the evolution of complex animals of larger size? Why would a small, simple animal (i.e., a flatworm) not need a coelom as much as a larger, more complex animal (i.e., a fish)?

14. How is the pseudocoelomate cavity different from that within colomate animals? What kinds of animals are pseudocoelomate?

15. Besides accommodation of internal organs, another function provided by a coelom is based on the concept that a space containing a fixed volume of non-compressible fluid is functionally a hydrostatic “skeleton.” Provide an example of an animal that uses this mechanism, and briefly explain how it works.

16. What morphological characteristics distinguish the Ecdysozoa from the Lophotrochozoa (the main groups of protostomes)? What are some representative phyla of each group?

17. What characteristics are hallmarks of the flatworms? Briefly describe each of the 3 major groupings within this phylum.

18. Why are flatworms able to exchange materials with their environment effectively through simple diffusion?

19. What’s so unique about reproduction in rotifers?

20. What important physical feature unites the lophophorates, and what is this structure used for? What are the 2 major groups of lophophorates, and how are they different from each other?

21. What are the defining traits of the molluscan body plan? How are these features modified in these different types of molluscs: a clam, an octopus, and a slug?

22. What important anatomical and ecological attributes make cephalopods unique compared to their other molluscan relatives?

23. Within the Annelida, there are 2 major clades. Describe these, and identify examples of annelids that would fit into each of these groupings. Google pictures & have fun exploring annelid diversity J

24. Contrast the 3 worm phyla we covered (Nematoda, Annelida, and Platyhelminthes). While they are all “worms” – this is a very superficial statement!

25. A roundworm has only longitudinal muscle (and a body cavity), while an earthworm (an annelid) has both longitudinal and circular muscle, and its body cavity is divided up by complete septa that isolate each "mini-cavity" within each body segment from that of the segment in front and the segment behind. How do these features of the two worms’ body structure affect the way that they move?

26. Which phylum is characterized by an exoskeleton, and what is it made of? What are the pros & cons of having an exoskeleton?

27. What are the chelicerates? What sort of appendages do they have, and why are these functionally important.

28. Contrast the 2 groups of Myriapods in structure and ecology.

29. Describe some of the characteristics of insects that have likely contributed to their enormous success on Earth.

30. Explain the different types of metamorphosis observed in insects; give examples of insects that exemplify each.

31. All crustaceans have specialized, branched appendages. Discuss what these “specializations” look like (& are used for) in a lobster, a barnacle, and an amphipod. (You may want to google some pics)

32. Describe how a water vascular system of echinoderms works as well as what functions it provides these animals.

33. What are the four defining characteristics of chordates, and how are these features lost/retained/restructured in the adult body form of A) a tunicate and B) a shark, and C) a human?

34. What kinds of animals are the invertebrate chordates? How do they obtain food & where would you find them?

35. What are the neural crest cells, and why are they such an important feature in vertebrate development?

36. How are hagfishes and lampreys unique from all other vertebrates? And what makes them distinctive from one another?

37. What change in ecology was made possible as ancient fish made the transition from jawless to having jaws? Why would this evolutionary transition also go hand in hand with the evolution of paired fins? The evolution of larger brains?

38. Describe the various sensory mechanisms that enable sharks to be such noteworthy predators.

39. Why do many sharks have to swim constantly? (Give both reasons.) What mechanisms enable many bony fishes to be stationary in the water column and/or rest for extended periods? (Again, there are 2 reasons.)

40. Are gorillas more closely related to a horn shark, a salmon, or a lungfish? Explain your answer.

41. How does a swim bladder present an opportunity for some fish to make use of atmospheric O2 to supplement what they’re getting from the water through their gills?

42. What are sarcopterygians, and what are some modern forms? Which of these is most closely allied with tetrapods, based on molecular data?

43. What features of Tiktaalik made it more terrestrial than other early tetrapods? And what are the derived traits common to all tetrapods?

44. Why are amphibians typically restricted to moist habitats? (Provide multiple reasons.)

45. Discuss the metamorphic transition from amphibian tadpole to adult.

46. What is the amniotic egg, and why does it effectively allow vertebrates to declare complete independence from their aquatic past? (in the same way that seed plants did with their inventions of pollen and seeds!)

47. What other features of amniotes (besides the egg) make them better-suited to life on dry land relative to amphibians?

48. What’s a diapsid? List the 2 major clades of diapsids around today, and identify representative groupings within each clade.

49. What features of a bird’s anatomy are adaptations for flight? And why is each helpful, specifically?

50. What lineage of amniotes gave rise to the mammals? What characteristics distinguish mammals from all other animal taxa?

51. What are 3 major groups of mammals & what features define each group? When did each group emerge?

52. A gorilla is a sarcopterygian, an osteichthyan, a gnathostome, a tetrapod, a vertebrate, and a chordate all at the same time. Could the same be said for a rabbit? a frog? a trout? a shark? a starfish? Explain…. (hint – making a table to compare all these might help)

53. Which vertebrate taxa are well-known as endotherms, and what are the advantages of having a body temperature remains stable from the fluctuations of surrounding air or water? What are the disadvantages of endothermy?

54. Which vertebrate taxa are well-known as ectotherms, and what are the advantages of having a body temperature that fluctuates with surrounding air or water? What are the disadvantages of ectothermy?

55. You have probably experienced a situation in which you underdressed on a cold day and became chilled. What thermoregulatory responses likely occurred, and how were they adaptive?

56. Describe the circulatory adaptations that facilitate A) heat conservation and B) heat dissipation.

57. Endotherms that overwinter in areas where little or no food is available until spring often reduce body temperature as part of their hibernation routine, but the amount by which the “thermostat” gets reset differs between species, presumably to a degree that has been shaped by a long history of stabilizing selection. What are the risks associated with decreasing body temperature too much or too little during winter hibernation?

58. What’s the adaptive value of brown fat, and how is its cellular structure unique in its ability to facilitate heat production?

59. Why is a wet interface required for gas exchange, and where do you find this wet interface in: A) a tapeworm, B) a salmon, C) a frog, and D) a rabbit?

60. Why is cutaneous gas exchange a viable option for a flatworm, yet out of the question for an elephant?

61. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using either air or water as a respiratory medium. What mechanisms do fish use to circumvent some of the challenges of obtaining oxygen from ambient water?

62. What is the difference between a physostomous swim bladder and a physoclistous swim bladder? Given that Osteichthyes evolution took shape largely in shallow freshwater inland seas, why would the physostomous form be more likely the primitive state? In what sense are physoclistous swim bladders homologous with mammalian lungs?

63. How is the anatomy of avian ventilation different from that of a mammal, and why is their arrangement better? How might this affect the limiting altitude for powered flight in birds vs. bats? [Put another way, why would you be less likely to see birds but not bats flying around in the Andes?]

64. Describe how gas exchange actually occurs at the alveoli-capillary interface.

65. What do we mean by “saturation” of Hb? And how does the cooperativity of the Hb molecule facilitate rapid uptake and release of oxygen?

66. What is the "Bohr Shift," and how does it facilitate effective oxygen delivery to the cells that need it?

67. How is myoglobin related to hemoglobin, and how is it different? And why should muscles that are used for sustained activity be more richly endowed with myoglobin (and therefore darker in color), relative to muscle that is reserved for short bursts of intense activity.

68. Sea anemones and flatworms have gastrovascular cavities, which originate from the archenteron of early embryos and are homologous with the GI tract of animals like us. But this structure is also effectively functional as a circulatory system. Explain.

69. Which invertebrate taxa are characterized by open circulation and which have closed circulation? What do we call the fluids in each of these types of systems?

70. Why is open circulation generally consistent with lower metabolic rates, and how are insects able to break this pattern?

71. What is the standard explanation for the evolution of closed circulation in mollusks, and how is it different from the narrative of development of circulation patterns in annelids?

72. What specific aspects of fish circulation might limit the delivery of oxygenated blood to the muscles and organs?

73. How is amphibian circulation "better" (than fish) at distributing oxygenated blood to the general systems? What is the pulmocutaneous circuit?

74. What is the problem with amphibian circulation, and how might amphibians compensate for what appears to be a less-than-optimal circulation?

75. What is the ventricular anatomy of the heart for snakes & lizards? How does this compare to a mammalian heart?

76. Among squamates there is variation in the degree in which the right and left sides of the ventricle are separated by a partial septum—blood still flows across, but is impeded somewhat by “speed bumps” of varying size. What is the prediction relating degree of septation with the animal’s metabolic rate, and how is the evolution of a four-chambered heart potentially understood as the final outcome of selection favoring variations that allow increased metabolic performance?

77. What’s the big advantage to osmoconforming (vs. osmoregulating)? Why is osmoconformity relatively common in marine organisms, but nonexistent in freshwater organisms?

78. A cnidarian and a shark are both osmoconformers, but they achieves this through different mechanisms. Explain!

79. Describe how a freshwater fish is challenged to maintain osmotic equilibrium in relation to the tonicity of their environment. What mechanisms are used by a freshwater fish to compensate for osmotic uptake of water?

80. Describe how a marine fish is challenged to maintain osmotic equilibrium in relation to the tonicity of their environment. What mechanisms are used by saltwater bony fishes to compensate for osmotic loss of water?

81. What is nitrogenous waste, and where does it derive come from? What is the "rawest" form of nitrogenous waste, what kinds of animals are able to eliminate their waste in this rawest form?

82. What form of nitrogenous waste requires the least amount of water loss for its elimination? What kinds of animals benefit from ridding nitrogenous waste in this form?

83. Describe/contrast the excretory mechanisms present in flatworms, annelids, and insects.

84. What form of nitrogenous waste is used by mammals? How is urine production by mammals the principal point at which the mammal can “control the valves” required for maintaining osmotic equilibrium?

85. Describe the process through which the various parts of a kidney’s nephron create urine.

86. How should the permeability of the collecting duct respond to low-water (dehydration) conditions and high-water (overhydration) conditions?

87. The mammalian kidney maintains a severe osmotic concentration gradient from a hypo-saline cortex to a hypersaline renal medulla. How is this gradient used by the animal for controlling the urine's concentration?

1. Going back to the “big” eukaryote tree, which of all the non-opi...